afghanistan
Afghanistan
Afghanistan (Pashto/Dari-Persian:Afghanistan) is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Asia. Generally considered a part of Central Asia, it is sometimes ascribed to a regional bloc in either South Asia or the Middle East, as it has cultural, ethno-linguistic, and geographic links with most of its neighbors. It is bordered by Iran in the west, Pakistan in the south and east, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China to the east. It has a population of 31,056,997 people. The name Afghanistan literally translates to Land of the Afghans. The origins of the name Afghanistan are shrouded in some mystery, but its modern usage derives from the word Afghan. The Pashtuns appear to have begun using the term Afghan as a name for themselves from the Islamic period onwards. According to W.K. Frazier Tyler, M.C. Gillet and several other scholars, "The word Afghan first appears in history in the Hudud-al-Alam in 982 AD." The last part of the name Afghanistan originates from the Persian word stan (country or land). The English word Afghanland that appeared in various treaties between Qajar-Persia and the United Kingdom dealing with the Eastern lands of the Persian kingdom (modern Afghanistan) was adopted by the Afghans and became Afghanistan. Afghanistan is a literal mosaic of ethnic groups and cultures and a crossroads between east and west. An ancient land that has often been plundered and also been a focal point of trade, Afghanistan has seen numerous invaders come and go including Aryans, Persians, Greeks, Arabs, and Turks. Afghanistan, in its current form was formed following the Anglo-Afghan wars that culminated in Afghanistan's complete independence from foreign intervention in 1919. The country's recent history has seen it ravaged by the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, the rise and fall of the Taliban, and the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan in 2001. As a result of these traumatic events, Afghanistan is in rebuilding phase as it attempts to reconcile the devastation that constant warfare has created with a new government that seeks to unify and rebuild Afghanistan. Largely populated by Muslim Iranian and Turkic peoples, Afghanistan faces numerous problems ranging from its devastated economy, the return of millions of refugees, continued warlordism, drug trafficking, and a new government that is struggling with political forces that are trying to define what sort of country Afghanistan will become in the 21st century. |
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Afghanistan History
50,000 BC-20,000 BC Archaeologists have identified evidence of stone age technology in Aq Kupruk, and Hazar Sum. Plant remains at the foothill of the Hindu Kush mountains indicate, that North Afghanistan was one of the earliest places to domestic plants and animals.
3000 BC-2000 BC Bronze might have been invented in ancient Afghanistan around this time.
First true urban centers rise in two main sites in Afghanistan-Mundigak, and Deh Morasi Ghundai.
Mundigak (near modern day Kandahar)-had an economic base of wheat, barley, sheep and goats. Also, evidence indicates that Mudigak could have been a provincial capital of the Indus valley civilization.
Ancient Afghanistan--crossroads between Mesopotamia, and other Civilizations.
2000 BC-1500 BC Aryan tribes in Aryana (Ancient Afghanistan) The City of Kabul is thought to have been established during this time. Rig Veda may have been created in Afghanistan around this time.
Evidence of early nomadic iron age in Aq Kapruk IV.
600 BC (There is some speculation about this date) Zoroaster introduces a new religion in Bactria (Balkh)
(Zoroastrianism--Monotheistic religion) (about 522 BC) Zoroaster dies during nomadic invasion near Balkh.
522 BC-486 BC Darius the Great expands the Achaemenid (Persian) empire to its peak, when it takes most of Afghanistan., including Aria (Herat), Bactriana (Balk, and present-day Mazar-i-Shariff), Margiana (Merv), Gandhara (Kabul, Jalalabad and Peshawar), Sattagydia (Ghazni to the Indus river), Arachosia (Kandahar, and Quetta), and Drangiana (Sistan). The Persian empire was plagued by constant bitter and bloody tribal revolts from Afghans living in Arachosia (Kandahar, and Quetta)
329-326 BC After conquering Persia, Afghanistan is invaded by Alexander the Great. Alexander conquers Afghanistan, but fails to really subdue its people. Constant revolts plague Alexander.
323 BC Greeks rule Bactria (Northern Afghanistan)
170 BC-160 BC Bactrian-Parthian
50 AD Kushan rule, under King Kanishka, Graeco-Buddhist Gandharan culture reach its height.
220 AD Kushan empire fragments into petty dynasties.
400 AD Invasion of the White Huns. They destroy the Buddhist culture, and leave most of the country in ruins.
425-550 AD Independent Yaftalee rule in Afghanistan.
550 AD Persians reassert control over all of what is now Afghanistan. Revolts by various Afghan tribes.
652 AD Arabs introduce Islam.
962-1030 Islamic era established with the Ghaznavid Dynasty (962-1140) Afghanistan becomes the center of Islamic power and civilization. Ibn Sina (Afghan scientist) is born in Balkh (980)
1030 Mahmud Ghazni dies. Conflicts between various Ghaznavid rulers arise and as a result the empire starts to crumple.
1140 Ghorid leaders from central Afghanistan capture and burn Ghazni, then move on to conquer India.
1219-1221 Invasion of Afghanistan by Genghis Khan. Destruction of Irrigation systems by Genghis Khan, which turned fertile soil into permanent deserts.
1273 Marco Polo crossed Afghan Turkistan.
1332-1370 Descendants of earlier Ghorid rulers reassert control over Afghanistan.
1370-1404The rule of Timour-i-Lang (Tamerlane) Afghan resistance.
1451 An Afghan named Buhlul invades Delhi, and seizes the throne. He finds the Lodi dynasty.
1504-1519 Babur, founder of the Moghul dynasty takes control of Kabul.
1520-1579 Bayazid Roshan (Afghan intellectual) revolts against the power of the Moghul government. Roshan was killed in a battle with the Moghuls in 1579--but his struggle for independence continued.
1613-1689 Khushhal Khan Khattak (Afghan warrior-poet) initiates a national uprising against the foreign Moghul government.
1708 Mir Wais (forerunner of Afghan independence) makes Kandahar independent of Safavid Persia that had ruled it since 1622
1715 Mir Wais dies peacefully, and lies in a mausoleum outside of Kandahar.
1722 Mir Wais' son, Mir Mahmud, invades Persia and occupies Isfahan. At the same time, the Durranis revolt, and terminate the Persian occupation of Herat.
1725 (April 25)--Mir Mahmud is mysteriously killed after going mad. Afghans start to lose control of Persia.
1736 Nadir Shah (head of Persia) occupies southwest Afghanistan, and southeast Persia.
1738 Nadir Shah takes Kandahar.
1747 Nadir Shah is assassinated, and the Afghans rise once again. Afghans, under the leadership of Ahmad Shah Abdali retake Kandahar, and establish modern Afghanistan.
1747-1773 Rule of Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani).
Ahmad Shah consolidates and enlarges Afghanistan. He defeats the Moghuls in the west of the Indus, and he takes Herat away from the Persians. Ahmad Shah Durrani's empire extended from Central Asia to Delhi, from Kashmir to the Arabian sea. It became the greatest Muslim empire in the second half of the 18th century.
(1750) Khurasan----> Afghanistan.
1773-1793 Rule of Timur Shah. Capital of Afghanistan transferred from Kandahar to Kabul because of tribal opposition. Constant internal revolts.
1793-1801 Rule of Zaman Shah. Constant internal revolts(1795) Persians invade Khurasan (province)
1801-1803 Rule of Mahmood. Constant internal revolts
1803-1809 Rule of Shah Shujah (1805) Persian attack on Herat fails. Internal fighting.
1809-1818 Mahmood returns to the throne. War with Persia--indecisive victory internal fighting
1819-1826 Sons of Timur Shah struggle for the throne-Civil War-anarchy-Afghans lose Sind permanently.
1826 Dost Mohammad Khan takes Kabul, and establishes control.
1832-1833 Persia moves into Khurasan (province), and threatens Herat. Afghans defend Herat successfully.
1834 (May)-Afghans lose Peshawar to the Sikhs; later they crushed the Sikhs under the leadership of Akbar Khan who defeated the Sikhs near Jamrud, and killed the great Sikh general Hari Singh. However, they failed to retake Peshawar due to disunity and bad judgment on the part of Dost Mohammad Khan.
1836 Dost Mohammad Khan is proclaimed as Amir (commander of the faithful). He was well on the road toward reunifying the whole of Afghanistan when the British, in collaboration with an ex-king (Shah Shuja), invade Afghanistan.
1839-1842 First Anglo-Afghan War. After some resistance, Amir Dost Mohammad Khan surrenders to the British and is deported to India. Shah Shuja is installed as a "puppet king" by the British. (1839-1842)
April 1842-Shah Shuja killed by Afghans. Afghans passionately continue their struggle against the British.
Akbar Khan-Afghan hero-victorious against the British. In January 1842, out of 16,500 soldiers (and 12,000 dependents) only one survivor, of mixed British-Indian garrison, reaches the fort in Jalalabad, on a stumbling pony.
1843 After the annihilation of British troops, Afghanistan once again becomes independent, and the exiled Amir, Dost Mohammad Khan comes back and occupies the royal throne (1843-1863).
1845 Afghan hero,Wazir M Akbar Khan dies.
1855 Dost Mohammad Khan signs a peace treaty with India.
1859 British take Baluchistan, and Afghanistan becomes completely landlocked.
1863-1866 Sher Ali, Dost Mohammad Khan's son, succeeds to the throne.
(1865)-Russia takes Bukhara, Tashkent, and Samerkand.
1866-1867 Mohammad Afzal occupies Kabul and proclaims himself Amir. October, 1867-Mohammad Afzal dies.
1867-1868 Mohammad Azam succeeds to the throne.
1868 Mohammad Azam flees to Persia.
1868 Sher Ali reasserts control (1868-1879).
1873 Russia established a fixed boundary between Afghanistan and it's new territories. Russia promises to respect Afghanistan's territorial integrity.
1878 Start of second Anglo-Afghan War. The British invade and the Afghans quickly put up a strong resistance.
1879 Sher Ali dies in Mazar-i-Shariff, and Amir Muhammad Yaqub Khan takes over until October 1879.
Amir Muhammad Yaqub Khan gives up the following Afghan territories to the British: Kurram, Khyber, Michni, Pishin, and Sibi. Afghans lose these territories permanently.
1880 Battle of Maiwand
July 1880, Afghan woman named Malalai carries the Afghan flag forward after the soldiers carrying the flag were killed by the British. She becomes a heroine for her show of courage and valour.
Abdur Rahman takes throne of Afghanistan as Amir.
The British, shortly after the accession of the new Amir, withdraw from Afghanistan, although they retain the right to handle Afghanistan's foreign relations. Abdur Rahman establishes fixed borders and he loses a lot of Afghan land. Nuristan converted to Islam.
1885 The Panjdeh Incident. Russian forces seize the Panjdeh Oasis, a piece of Afghan territory north of the Oxus River. Afghans tried to retake it, but was finally forced to allow the Russians to keep Panjdeh, and the Russians promised to honor Afghan territorial integrity in the future.
1893 The Durand line fixes borders of Afghanistan with British India, splitting Afghan tribal areas, leaving half of these Afghans in what is now Pakistan.
1895 Afghanistan's northern border is fixed and guaranteed by Russia
1901 Abdur Rahman dies, his son Habibullah succeeds him. Slows steps toward modernization
1907 Russia and Great Britain sign the convention of St. Petersburg, in which Afghanistan is declared outside Russia's sphere of influence.
1918 Mahmud Tarzi (Afghan Intellectual) introduces modern Journalism into Afghanistan with the creation of several newspapers.
1919 Habibullah is assassinated, and succeeded by his son Amanullah (The reform King)
The first museum in Afghanistan is instituted at Baghe Bala.
1921 Third Anglo-Afghan war. Once again, the British are defeated, and Afghanistan gains full control of her foreign affairs.Treaty of Ranalpindi.Amanullah Khan initiates a series of ambitious efforts at social and political modernization.
1923 Amanullah Khan changes his title from Amir to Padshah (King).
1929 Amanullah Khan is overthrown by Habibullah Kalakani. After the fall of Amanullah Khan, Mahmud Tarzi seeks asylum in Turkey. The Rise and Fall of Habibullah Kalakani, popularly known as "Bache Saqaw"
Nadir Khan takes the throne; his tribal army loots government buildings and houses of wealthy citizens because the treasury was empty. Habibullah Kalakani, along with his supporters, and a few supporters of Amanullah Khan are killed by Nadir Khan. Now Nadir Khan establishes full control.
1930 (May) Pro-Amanullah Khan uprising put down by Nadir Khan. Nadir Khan abolishes reforms set forth by Amanullah Khan to modernize Afghanistan.
1933 Nadir Khan assassinated by a college student, and his son, Zahir, inherits the throne. He rules until 1973.
Zahir Shah's uncles serve as prime ministers and advisors until 1953.
Mahmud Tarzi dies in Turkey at the age of 68 with a heart full of sorrow and despair toward his country.
1934 The United States of America formally recognizes Afghanistan.
1938 Da Afghanistan Bank (State Bank of Afghanistan) is incorporated.
1939 Minor pro-Amanullah Khan uprising (January 15)
1940 Zahir Shah proclaims Afghanistan as neutral during WW2.
1947 Britain withdraws from India. Pakistan is carved out of Indian and Afghan lands.
1949 Afghanistan's Parliament denounces the Durand Treaty and refuses to recognize the Durand line as a legal boundary between Pakistan and Afghanistan. Pashtuns in Pashtunistan (Occupied Afghan Land) proclaim an independent Pashtunistan, but their proclamation goes unacknowledged by the world community.
1953 Prince Mohammad Daoud becomes Prime Minister.
1954 The U.S. rejects Afghanistan's request to buy military equipment to modernize the army.
1955 Daoud turns to the Soviet Union (Russia) for military aid.The Pashtunistan (occupied Afghan land) issue flares up.
1956 Kruschev and Bulgaria agree to help Afghanistan. Close ties between Afghanistan and USSR.
1959 The Purdah is made optional, women begin to enroll in the University which has become co-educational.
Women begin to enter the workforce, and the government.
1961 Pakistan and Afghanistan come close to war over Pashtunistan.
1963-1964 Zahir Shah demands Daoud's resignation. Dr. Mohammad Yusof becomes Prime Minister.
1965 The Afghan Communist Party was secretly formed in January. Babrak Karmal is one of the founders.
In September, first nationwide elections under the new constitution. Karmal was elected to the Parliament, later instigates riots. Zahir and Yussof form second government.
1969 Second nationwide elections. Babrak and Hafizullah Amin are elected.
1972 Mohammad Moussa becomes Prime Minister.
1973 July 17th: Zahir Shah is on vacation in Europe, when his government is overthrown in a military coup headed by Daoud Khan and PDPA (Afghan Communist Party). Daoud Khan abolishes the monarchy, declares himself President---Republic of Afghanistan is established.
1974 UNESCO names Herat as one of the first cities to be designated as a part of the worlds cultural heritage.
1975-1977 Daoud Khan presents a new constitution. Women's rights confirmed. Daoud starts to oust suspected opponents from his government.
1978 Bloody Communist coup: Daoud is killed, Taraki is named President, and Karmal becomes his deputy Prime Minister. Tensions rise. Mass arrests, tortures, and arrests takes place. Afghan flag is changed. Taraki signs treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union. June-Afghan guerrilla (Mujahideen) movement is born.
1979 Mass killings, US ambassador killed. Taraki is killed and Hafizullah Amin takes the Presidency. Amin is executed, and he is replaced with Babrak Karmal. Soviet Union (Russia) invade in December.
1980 Dr. Najibullah is brought back from USSR to run the secret police.
1984 UN sends investigators to Afghanistan to examine reported human rights violations.
1986 Babrak Karmal is replaced by Dr. Najibullah.
1987 Najibullah proposes ceasefire, but the Mujahideen refuse to deal with a "puppet government".
Mujahideen make great gains, defeat of Soviets eminent.
1988-1989 Peace accords signed in Geneva. Soviet Union defeated by Afghanistan, total withdrawal by the Soviets occurred on Feb. 15, 1989.Experts agree that at least 40,000-50,000 Soviets lost their lives in action, besides the wounded, suicides, and murders. Mujahideen continue to fight against Najibullah's regime.
May-Afghan guerrillas elect Sibhhatullah Mojadidi as head of their government-in-exile.
1992 April 15-The Mujahideen take Kabul and liberate Afghanistan, Najibullah is protected by UN.
The Mujahideen form an Islamic State-Islamic Jihad Council-elections. Iranian and Pakistani interference increases-more fighting-Professor Burhannudin Rabbani is elected President.
1994 The Taliban militia are born, and advance rapidly against the Islamic government. Dostum and Hekmatyar continued to clash against Rabbani's government, and as a result Kabul is reduced to rubble.
1995Massive gains by the Taliban. Increased Pakistani and Iranian interference.
1996 June: Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, head of Hezbi-Islami, having been eliminated as a military power, signs a peace pact with Rabbani, and returns to Kabul to rule as prime minister.
September 27: Taliban militia force President Rabbani and his government out of Kabul. After the capture of Kabul, the Taliban execute Najibullah.
Alliance between Government, Hezbi Wahdat, and Dostum.
Oppression of women by the Taliban - women must be fully veiled, no longer allowed to work, go out alone or even wear white socks. Men are forced to grow beards. Buzkashi, the Afghan national sport is outlawed.
Tensions rise as Afghan government accuse Pakistan of aiding the Taliban.
 | The Loya Jirga | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 Loya Jirga or Grand Assembly, By Afghanland.com Despite the fact that traditions of jirgas are as old as the civilisation of Afghanistan is, yet its practice to turn it into regular national phenomenon on a grand scale was owned by the more modern rulers and inhabitants of Afghanistan. Following the rise of Mirwais Khan Hotak as leader of Afghans, the jirgas became a national and regular feature for deciding matters of common concern.
After April Communist Revolution in 1978 and especially after the invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Union in December 1979 the Cold War rivalries entered Afghanistan and, both sides, ruling and opposition forces resorted to this tradition. Since Jirgas held by moderate elements opposed by Mujahideen in 1980 at Peshawar, by Karmal regime in 1985 and by President Najibullah in 1987 where held under the shadow of foreign powers, therefore, their influence on the course of events was limited. The same was the fate of Shura-e-Al-o-Aqd, held in Herat in 1992 without any representation by the opposition to legitimize and prolong the rule of Burhanuddin Rabbani.
Final Results of the Election from 1555 votes cast
 The United Nations said 1575 votes were cast and that 20 were declared invalid. A fourth candidate Glam Fareq Majidi was disqualified before the vote because he garnered only 101 signatures of support. Karzai received thunderous applause when the announcement was made placing him at the top of the Afghan administration for the next 18 months until parliamentary elections are organized. Karzai's candidacy was backed by a former mujahedeen fighter, Mohammed Asef Mohsoni, who submitted a list with 1,050 names — seven times the number required to confirm the nomination and well over half of the 1,650 delegates. In accepting the nomination before the vote, Karzai spoke to the delegates assembled in both Pashto and Dari, the country's two main languages;.  "After 25 years, all the Afghans are gathering under one tent. The refugees are coming back. It is a proud moment for me, … we need security, we need peace, we need stability, we need an administration in control of all of Afghanistan, … I know many Taliban and they were taken over, hijacked by the foreign people. Those people were against Afghanistan. Those who were responsible for the massacres, those who were responsible  for the burning" were foreigners. … We want an improved economy. We want the people to trust each other. We want investment in Afghanistan. We want to start a reconstruction program to rebuild the roads, the irrigation channels. We don't want to miss this chance. This is our best chance for reconstruction.... a matter of pride for me, for my friends, sisters and brothers, like you who voted for me to be head of the transitional period... God willing, I will be of service to Afghanistan, my religion and will work for the development of my country" Karzai was chosen by secret ballot — with black-and-white photos of the candidates adjacent to their names. Many delegates believe the United States and other powerbrokers have cut deals circumventing the loya jirga process. Former monarch Mohammad Zaher Shah and ex-president Burhanuddin Rabbani withdrew from candidacy for head of state and threw their support behind the U.S.-backed Karzai, causing consternation among many delegates.
2,000 delegates 1,051 elected members Guaranteed seats for 160 women 53 seats for current government 100 seats for Afghan refugees and six for internally displaced Afghans 25 seats for nomads | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Loya Jirga participated by influential elders and leaders of Abdali and Ghilzai tribes, as well as representatives of other ethnic groups, especially Uzbeks, was held at Sher-i-Surkh near Kandahar City in 1747 had chosen Ahmad Khan, later Ahmed Shah Abdali, as king new and modern Afghanistan. As we see the very state of modern Afghanistan owes its existence to this time-tested tradition. From then onward, Loya Jirga became regular feature in the history of the country.
According to afghanland.com sources, The Loya Jirga of Nadir Khan was held in September 1930 to approve the rules of business for Millie shura (national council). In July 1941, Zahir Shah convened Loya Jirga to deliberate upon the Afghan position vis-a-vis Second World War. Another Loya Jirga during the Prime Ministership of Sardar Daoud Khan in November 1955, which raised the issue of Pakhtunistan under the conditions that Pakistan had come into being as inheritor of all British rights and obligations in the area. Daoud Khan also called Loya Jirga in February 1977 to legitimise his rule, pass new constitution, elect new president, get approval for launching of his national revolutionary party and ratify some laws and agreements reached with other countries. 
Emergency Loya Jirga of 2002 
Emergency Loya Jirga